Learning Styles
Sections
Definitions of Learning Style
Learning style is .....
- "the complex manner in which, and conditions under which, learners
most efficiently and most effectively perceive, process, store, and
recall what they are attempting to learn" (James and Gardner, 1995,
p. 20).
- "an individiual's characteristic way of processing information
feeling, and behaving in learning situations" (Smith, as cited
in Merriam and Caffarella, 1991, p. 176).
- "the cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve
as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with,
and respond to the learning environment" (Keefe, as cited in Swanson,
1995, p. 2).
- "the preference or predisposition of an individual to perceive
and process information in a particular way or combination of ways"
(Sarasin, 1998, p. 3).
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Understanding Learning Styles
With a mission statement underscoring learner-centredness, understanding
how learning and teaching styles influence student learning is increasingly
important. Research has demonstrated, for example, that the relationship
between teaching and learning style is a factor in the success of college
and university level students. Identifying, then, the modes in which students
learn best becomes useful in two ways - first, in helping students understand
and become aware of how they themselves learn and study best (metacognition)
and second, in helping instructors achieve a more holistic approach to
selecting and designing teaching strategies, lessons, and activities that
maximize student learning and understanding.
While addressing the diverse learning needs of students adds to the challenge
instructors face in their day-to-day teaching, accounting for differences
has the potential to help students succeed in higher education and instructors
improve course design, introduce variety into teaching methods and learning
activities, and promote a more positive environment that places students
at the heart of learning.
The many models and approaches to learning style can be grouped and examined
under one of four categories:
- personality dimensions - assesses the influence of one's personality
on their preferred approach(es) to acquiring and integrating information
(Eg. Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator)
- information-processing - a student's preferred cognitive approach
to understanding and assimilating information (Eg. Schmeck's (1983)
construct of cognitive complexity and Kolb's
(1984) model of information processing)
- social interaction - looks at how students engage with their peers
in the classroom (Eg. Reichmann's
and Grasha's (1974) types of learners: independent, dependent, collaborative,
competitive, participant, and avoidant)
- multidimensional and instructional preference looks at the student's
preferred environment/approach for learning (Eg. Human Information Processing
Model (Keefe, 1989) and Learning Style Model of Dunn and Dunn (1978))
To further your understanding of learning styles and its application
to the classroom, refer to the following on-line documents, learning styles
instruments, and text resources. See also Assumptions
about Learning and an excerpt on learning
styles from a book chapter called "Today's Undergraduate Students."
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On-line documents:
Learning
Styles Can Become Teaching Strategies provides a brief introduction
and overview of issues and concerns to be considered when exploring the
use of learning styles in teaching.
By: W. J. McKeachie, University of Michigan
In Matters
of Style the author briefly outlines four models of learning style,
indicating where engineering students traditionally fall on each. Additional
readings for each learning style model are further provided.
By: Richard
Felder, North Carolina State University
In Reaching
the Second Tier: Learning and Teaching Styles in College Science Education
the author summarizes elements of learning styles models (particularly
relevant to science education) proposing instructional methods to reach
students who span the learning styles spectrum.
By: Richard
Felder, North Carolina State University
In Learning
Styles and Experiential Learning the author explains learning style
in terms of how individuals perceive and process information.
These two elements, she notes, are the basis of the four phases (cyclical)
which drive Kolb's experiential learning model. To help instructors implement
Kolb's model in the classroom, she describes a selection of teaching strategies
for each learning style in the cycle and some suggestions for planning
and implementing experiential learning.
By: Niki Fardouly, University
of New South Wales
In Seven
Styles of Learning, Elaine Winters, in a short three part narrative,
outlines seven styles of learning reframed from Howard Gardner's Theory
of Multiple Intelligences. In part 1 she describes the various learning
styles and characterizes who and how people learn within these types.
In part 2 she demonstrates how context (e.g. culture) influences learning.
In part 3, she provides practical tips for implementing some of her ideas
for strengthening intellectual abilities in the various learning modes.
By: Elaine Winters
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On-line Resources:
Take part in an on-line, self-directed course entitled "Learning to
Learn: Thinking and Learning Skills," browse through the various
modules
open to the public such as "Learning
Styles," or check out their extensive list of
learning styles resources.
Learning
Modalities, Styles, and Strategies provides links to a host of inventories
and assessment tools, identifies other factors which influence teaching
and learning, and addresses learning styles and strategies.
The Masie Centre provides a list of books on learning
styles.
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On-line Instruments:
Learning
Styles Inventory
Tests for audiotory, visual, or tactile preference. A paper and pencil
version is provided. Calculations have to be performed manually.
Index
of Learning Styles (ILS) Questionnaire (Felder and Soloman)
This instrument can be used to assess preferences on four dimensions (active/reflective,
sensing/intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/global. A paper and pencil
version or an online 44-item questionnaire for which feedback is immediate
is available from the above link. Other information on learning styles
can also be found on this page.
Keirsey
Temperment Sorter II (David
Keirsey, 1998)
This inventory is designed to identify different kinds of personality
and is similar to other inventories such as Myers-Briggs. Scoring of the
online, 70-item inventory is immediate. See also "Using
the Keirsey Test Data".
Keirsey
Character Sorter (David
Keirsey,1997)
This two-part inventory is done online and is designed to identify different
kinds of personality temperaments. Feedback is immediate. A graphical
representation of your preferences as well as links to related information
are provided. See also "Using
the Keirsey Test Data".
Teaching
Styles Inventory
This self-assessment tools provides a teaching styles profile. Questions
are divided into categories on instructional planning, teaching methods,
teaching environment, evaluation techniques, and educational philosophy.
Print out the inventory and scoring sheet. Directions included.
VARK
Inventory (Neil Fleming, 1987)
VARK is an acronym made from the initial letters of four sensory modal
preferences (Visual, Aural, Read/write and Kinesthetic). Modal preferences
are used by people when they are taking in or giving out information.This
short inventory tells users something about their preferences for working
with information.
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Further Readings
Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with Style: A Practical Guide to Enhancing
Learning by Understanding Teaching and Learning Styles. Pittsburg,
PA: Alliance Publishers. (available in the TRC)
Hayes, E.R. (1989). Effective Teaching Styles: New Directions for
Continuing Education, 43, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as a Source of
Learning and Development. New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs. (available
in the TRC)
Kolb, D. A. (1994). "Learning styles and disciplinary differences."
In K. Feldman and M. Paulson (eds), Teaching and Learning in the College
Classroom. Needham Heights, MA: Ginn Press. (available in the TRC)
Lawrence, G. (1993). People Types and Tiger Stripes. Florida:
Center for Applications of Psychological Type Inc.
Morgan, H. (1997). Cognitive Styles and Classroom Learning. Westport,
Conn.: Praeger.
Palmer, P. J. (1987). "Community , conflict, and ways of knowing."
Change, September/October 20-25. (available in the TRC)
Price, G.E. (1983). "Diagnosing learning styles." New Directions
for Continuing Education, 19. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc. 49-55.
Sarasin, L.C. (1998). Learning Style Perspectives: Impact in the Classroom.
Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing. (available in the TRC)
Schmeck, R. R. (1998). Learning Strategies and Learning Styles.
New York: Plenum Press.
Sims, R. R. (1995). The Importance of Learning Styles: Understanding
the Implications for Learning, Course Design, and Education. Wesport,
Conn.: Greenwood Press.
Svinicki, M. D. & Dixon, N. M. (1987). "The Kolb model modified
for classroom activities." College Teaching, 35 (4), 141-146.
(available in the TRC)
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